Emigration from the United Kingdom to America from 1870 to 1897: 
°
Belfast (Giant's Causeway) ° Cork ° Derry ° Dublin
° Galway ° Limerick ° Rosslare ° Shannon ° Waterford
The Irish in the South,
1815-1877
David T. Gleeson
University of North Carolina Press
The majority of Ireland's Catholics lived in poverty. Ireland endured two major famines, and barely avoided several more, in the eighteenth century. Outbursts of agrarian violence were common and occasionally substantial. Escape to the New World in the eighteenth century did not provide the opportunities that it would in the nineteenth century. Those who ended up in the American colonies usually had not chosen to go there. According to Kerby Miller, approximately 100,000 Irish Catholics "emigrated" to the British American colonies in the eighteenth century. Quickly finding themselves handicapped by "poverty, bond service and the recruiting sergeant," Irish Catholic colonials tended to work as indentured servants, to be convicts, or to serve as members of the British armed forces. They usually "toiled in obscure places for hard taskmasters" and lived rather "brutish lives." Miller believes that these emigrants were "rootless" in "familial and cultural" terms, because they usually emigrated as individuals rather than as family units. They were dispersed throughout the colonies, and by necessity English became their public language. Their families at home in Ireland, however, continued to speak Gaelic. They also lost their Catholicism. Having left an Ireland with a very weak church structure for the colonies, where Catholicism barely existed, migrants who wanted any religious solace had to become Protestant. Nineteenth-century Irish clerics who came to the South determined not to let contemporary immigrants go the way of their eighteenth-century predecessors. Because of the previous cultural breakdown and resulting disappearance of their relatives and friends, the Irish conceived of America as a dark place of exile where loved ones were never heard from again.
A second group of Irish people perceived America differently. They did not take as long to become enamored with North America. The Protestant residents of the northern part of Ireland, whose ancestors had come from Scotland and England and who had been "planted" (i.e., settled on land seized from the native Irish by the English Crown) in the province of Ulster since the early 1600s, saw America more as an escape than an exile. These Ulster folk, known in popular terms as the "Scots Irish," were predominantly Presbyterian. Their religious dissent led the Anglican-dominated Irish parliament to discriminate against them, despite the Dissenters' crucial role in King William's victory in Ireland. The Anglican rulers of eighteenth-century Ireland saw the Ulster Presbyterians as a serious threat to their power and influence, because, unlike the disfranchised Irish Catholics, Dissenters remained a vociferous political force. The authorities passed a series of laws that withdrew official recognition of Dissenter marriages and made nonattendance at Anglican services and nonrecognition of Anglican episcopal authority prosecutable offenses. In 1704, the Test Act stated that all public officeholders had to take sacraments in the (Anglican) Church of Ireland. Despite the passage of the Toleration Act in 1719, Church of Ireland clergy and politicians continued to discriminate against Presbyterians.
Christian Examiner, September 1, 1843
London, United Kingdom
CONGREGATIONAL UNION OF IRELAND.
No subject is more discussed in Parliament—in the Cabinet —in the Newspapers—than IRELAND. To judge of her importance by the amount of thought and time bestowed on her, we should pronounce no price too great with which to purchase her welfare. But with capabilities which, rightly directed, would place Her high and blessed among the nations, and after being for centuries in England's care—from the Giant's Causeway to Cape Clear she is rent with distractions, masses of her population are sunk in wretchedness hardly to be believed by those who have not seen it, while their minds and consciences are held spell-bound by Antichristianism. Yes I take up the map of Europe;—there lies Ireland alongside Britain, and an integral part of the empire;—a rock on which administration after administration has split—a problem that confounds statesmen of every creed—a perpetual clog on the wheels of government—a source of annoyance and anxiety to the whole community.
Can any thing be done for Ireland?—"Repeal the Legislative Union, and give us our own Parliament," exclaim thousands of her sons. "Adopt at once coercive measures—put down the Papists, and re-establish the glorious Protestant Ascendancy," exclaim thousands more. Volumes would fail to record the receipts prescribed by empirics or sober minded physicians to heal the land. Numbers who professed that they would serve her if they could, have become weary in hearing about her, and seem abandoning her to her fate, judging her case hopeless without an interposition of Providence next to miraculous. But there are Christians in Ireland acquainted with the country, and there are Christians elsewhere acquainted with the Bible, who think they see a bow of promise in the cloud that now appears to have settled on her destinies, and who have an instrumentality which, by the blessing of God, can achieve for her what nothing else can do. Reader, God's " saving health" can cure Ireland's maladies—the "Sun of Righteousness " arising, will dissipate Ireland's gloom—the preaching; of the Cross can do for Ireland, and sooner or later shall do for Ireland, what it has done elsewhere, as "the power of God unto salvation."
The " Green Isle" is a land of picturesque scenery—a land of stirring intellects and generous hearts—a land of poets, warriors, statesmen, orators, artists, &c., whose names rank high in present fame. It is wished to make her in the best sense—an " ISLAND OF SAINTS."
The Ohio Repository, December 27, 1848
Ireland.--The London Sun represents that emigration and "extermination" will soon leave the southern and southwestern counties barren wildernesses.
Such is the extent of the desolation, that whole
towns are tenantless, and large tracts of land lying idle and uncultivated. In one barony of Kerry, through which a correspondent rode, there was no sign of
tillage, and in another quarter, there were only two fields cultivated in a range of 35 miles! A correspondent
of the Limerick Examiner says, that the country is in a wretched condition, and there was not the least inclination to put in any seed. In the Kilrush Union, upwards of 2,000 houses have been pulled down, and the inmates turned out to beg, during the last 12 months.
Black and White, August 12, 1893
London, United Kingdom
IRELAND AS A TOURIST CENTRE.
THIS year, the peasants and inn-keepers of the West of Ireland have been astonished at the number of tourists that have invaded their territory, for a season of quiet and a respite from fierce agitation, has sent crowds into the far west districts of Connemara and Donegal, to return surprised at the beauty of these western highlands, and perhaps surprised also at some other matters.
The whole of Ireland, from Glengariff at its extreme south, to the Giant's Causeway upon its northern shores, is crowded with objects of extreme interest.
Click to view additional sketches of Ireland from 1893.
To take a flying survey of the whole of Ireland as a tourist resort, we will enter the Green Isle by its southern gate of Cork — which the Great Western Railway system enables us to do in a comfortable manner —and steam up the lovely Cove of Cork, or Queenstown Harbour. The entry by Cork enables us at once to dive into the very heart of some of the most beautiful of Ireland's scenery. The Cork and Bandon railway takes one by rail, and char a banc on to Glehgariff; and its enterprise has made this the favourite route; but the now almost forgotten route, vid Macroom, leads through some of the noblest arid wildest scenery, and through a district where the working out of the new Land and Labourers Cottages Acts can be well studied.
It is a pleasant stroll at Macroom by the river Sullane, above which rises between the trees the tall square castle of Lord Bantry, now in a neglected,
dilapidated condition, and bearing evidence of a life's story that is full of
madness and folly. Standing by the castle gate, as we emerged from it not
long since, was a man attended by two of the famous constabulary, who shadow
him for his safety wherever he turns, for twice he has been fired at, and as on
the following; morning we drove on towards Gougane Barra, we passed two
other gentlemen who had been fired at, one having his driver killed by his side; but matters are quiet now, and even landlords drive fearlessly along the
wild country roads. This whole drive of forty miles to Glengariff is full of
interest, but the two points especially strange and beautiful are the little Holy
Islands on Gougane Barra, the strange lake amid the mountains to which flock
in hundreds the peasantry of Kerry to bathe in the Holy well, and to pray amid the ruins of the chapel of St. Vinbar, who exterminated the one monster reptile that had been too much for St. Patrick. Of the oft praised beauties of Glengariff and Killarney we need say but a word. Who that has, climbed a mountain and looked down upon the islet flecked bay of Glengariff,
or wandered up to Cromwell's Bridge and lingered by the swift flowing
river that rushes round its ruined piers, has not felt enwrapt by the beauty of
the scene, and the warm, soft enervating atmosphere that gives luxuriant growth
to the flowers and vegetation around? And at Killarney, when in early morning
one can be free from tourist and guide, it is pleasant to linger on the soft lawns
around Muckross Abbey, or to row lazily out on .the lakes' lifting waters, and
look round at Tomjer and Tore and mighty Mangerton and the bold ruins of ,
Ross Castle, or to stroll up the Glengariff road and look down upon the whole '*
sweep of the lakes.
To arrive at Galway from this Killarney district the rail runs through Limerick; arid a halt at Limerick Junction gives the opportunity of a walk through the rich, badly cultivated fields to New and Old Tipperary. Limerick is an excellent centre for trips down the lower Shannon to the Kilkee and - famous cliffs of Moher district, and, as around Kerry, there is much here to interest the archaeologist and historian: prehistoric and early monastic remains, cashels and cloghauns, abbeys and castles.
The town of Galway still possesses some curious relics of the past--bits of its walls, and remnants of mediaeval houses—and the fisherman's heart will be gladdened by the sight of the salmon in the river, and in the mighty expanse of Lough Corib adjoining it. Just outside the town, luckily near the open breezy bay, is the strange cluster of huts of the fishermen's colony, known as the Claddagh, and a Sadder sight than this curious colony, living in low huts amidst dirt and squalor, without windows and in idleness, save when the fish come in, and begging for the price of a potato, can hardly be seen. To those who have not entered Ireland at Dublin, by the Holyhead route, Galway makes a convenient spot fort breaking the Western tour, and by a run across to the capital, especially if he wants to end his visit at Belfast and in the district around Dublin, comfort is again obtained, and the tourist's wants are considered, although the beggar and useless guide is too much en evidence. There is one spot that should be missed by no one who visits Dublin, and that is the strange picturesque Valley where lie the lakes of Glendalough, near whose shores stand the deeply interesting remains of the Seven churches, and a noble example of the strange Round towers. It is curious in wandering amid these churches to note how, in miniature, the architecture in many points resembles that at Mykeme and Tiryns in Greece.
Certainly the true tourist district of Ireland of the future lies between Galway and Donegal. Oftimes in the summer the scenery is hid by pelting rain, but the car agents and "drivers provide no aprons for the passengers, or even tarpaulins for the luggage, and when cars have to be changed the luggage is thrown down into the road, though torrents of rain may be falling. The drivers of these cars are often brutally uncivil, and demand their tips as it were blackmail, and curse the intrepid traveller who refuses any fee on account of their neglect or insolence. But the sight of Clew Bay, from over the hills above Westport, repays one for much discomfort; and the mountain ranges enwreathed and capped with cloud masses, are strikingly grand.
Ere reaching Donegal one town lying inland should not be missed, clean, neat, busy little Enniskillen, where is an excellent little hotel; and a row out on Lake Erne, in half-an-hour if.wind is fair, brings one to the lovely island of Devenish, where are the ruins of an Abbey and the most perfect Round tower in all Ireland, perfect to its apex, with a carved moulding running round beneath its peaked summit.
At Donegal, where the Bay is very beautiful, are also some most interesting remains of an Abbey and a Tudoresque castle. The Abbey ruins being famous as the scene of the composition of Ireland's history the "Annals of the Four Masters." Not far from Donegal, but a day's ride, are the stupendous cliffs of Slieveleague, descending in swift descent some 1,700 feet to the sea. From Donegal it is an easy run by rail up through the picturesque pass of Barnesmore Gap, and past Lakes Eask and Mourne and skirting, to finish, the pleasant Lough Foyle, into Londonderry. The notable walls of Derry with their little jutting Bartisan towers will claim a stroll round them ere starting for Portrush, and the district of the Giant's Causeway; but arrived at this northern point, some little time should be taken ere reaching Belfast. The 'whole district is teeming with interest, of strange outfitting castles on precipitous isolated cliffs such as Dunluce, of cliff scenery, varying from the white lime stone to the dark iron-like basalt, that starts up in stupendous forms above that spot that grows upon one as he lingers about alone amidst the thousands of pillars—the Giant's Causeway. From the Causeway there is the most charming of drives—-reminding one in miniature of the Cornice, though colour and formation are so different—around the coast to Larne. The scenery, that includes that dizzy swinging rope bridge of Carrick-a-rede, repays one for much roughness, and at Larne the rail brings one quickly to Belfast, the thriving town that exports all kinds of work, from the delicate point lace 'kerchief to the mighty Atlantic greyhoqnds, such as the "Teutonic," proving that Ireland is capable of great things.
SIR ROBERT BALL, the Irish astronomer, has a very fascinating article in the current number of the Fortnightly Review. " The Wanderings of the North Pole" sounds startling as a subject, for the average non-mathematic and non-astronomical mind is under the impression that the North Pole is a very stable abstraction. This, however, is far from being the case, and Professor Ball, in treating of stellar photographs, shows how Polaris, the northern star, itself revolves in a circle round the true Celestial Pole, and how the; position of the North Pole is ever changing. A time will come when Polaris is the North Star no longer and the most critical point in the heavens will be not far from the star Vega. Then, after further twenty-five thousand years, the North Pole will have wandered back to its present position once again. The charm of all Sir Robert Ball's writings marks this brilliant and learned essay.
Belfast
(Beal Feirste: Mouth of the Sandy Ford)In 1177 an Englishman called John de Courcy built a castle in the area, however, the actual town of Belfast grew up after 1609 when king James began his policy of settling Englishmen and Scots in Ulster. Sir Arthur Chichester was granted land in Ulster including Belfast Castle, which he rebuilt in 1611. A small town soon grew up in its shadow and by 1611 there were Englishmen, Scots and Manxmen living in the thriving community of Belfast. In 1613 Belfast was made a corporation and afterwards it sent 2 MPs to parliament. However, ordinary people had no part in the government of the town. In the early 17th century Belfast was a small town with a population of only about 1,000 but it was busy. Wool, hides, grain, butter and salted meat were exported from Belfast to England, Scotland and France. Wine and fruit were imported into Belfast from France and Spain. Later in the 17th century Belfast traded with the North American colonies and tobacco was imported, along with sugar from the West Indies. By the late 17th century Belfast probably had a population of about 1,500-2,000, greatly due to an influx of French Protestants, fleeing religious persecution in their own country; they introduced linen weaving to Belfast. Other industries in Belfast were brewing, rope making and sail making.
In 1680 Belfast gained a piped water supply (using wooden pipes). After 1686 each householder was supposed to hang a lantern outside his house at night during the winter months. In the 18th century Belfast grew rapidly, from 2,500 in 1700 to about 8,000 in 1750 and 13,000 by 1780. By 1800 Belfast had a population of around 20,000. In the late 18th century a new suburb grew up across the Lagan. Belfast gained its first newspaper in 1737. During the 18th century increasing amounts of linen, woven in people's homes, not factories, were exported from Belfast. In 1701 less than 200,000 yards of linen was exported from Belfast. By 1773 the figure had risen to 17 million yards. The White Linen Hall was built in 1788. Cotton spinning was introduced into Belfast in 1777. However it never had the same importance as linen. In 1785 a Harbour Board and shipbuilding began in Belfast in 1791.
Belfast continued to grow rapidly in the 19th century and it became a city in 1888. The Harbour Commissioners Office was built in 1854. The Custom House was built in 1857. Ulster Hall was built in 1862. As in all early 19th century cities, conditions in Belfast in the years 1800-1850 were appalling. Streets were dirty and houses were overcrowded and Belfast suffered through an outbreak of typhus (a disease spread by lice) followed by cholera struck Belfast. In the late 1880s and early 1890s Belfast Council built a network of sewers. Albert Bridge was built in 1890.
The shipbuilding industry in Belfast boomed. The Harland and Wolff shipyard was founded in 1862. The port also boomed. The River Lagan was shallow and winding so in 1841 a channel was dug to by-pass one of its curves. In this way Queens Island was formed. The channel was extended in 1849 and the extension was named Victoria Channel. (Both it and Queens Island were named after the visit of Queen Victoria to Belfast in 1849). Clarendon Dock was built in 1851. Dufferin and Spencer Docks followed in 1872. York Dock was built in 1897.
Giants Causeway
The Giant's Causeway stretches 3 miles (4.8 km) along the coast along the north coast of the Moyle district, Northern Ireland, NE of Coleraine along the coast of Antrium.
The news of the "discovery" of an amazing natural phenomenon broke on an unsuspecting world in 1693 it was by the presentation of a paper to the Royal Society from Sir Richard Bulkeley, a fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. The "discoverer" had, in fact, been the then Bishop of Derry a year earlier. In 1697 a draughtsman was sent to make drawings of the Natural Curiosity on the North East tip of the island of Ireland.
At that time, there was much argument as to whether the Causeway had been created by men with picks and chisels, by nature, or by the efforts of a giant. Nothing like it had been seen before. As an artist, Miss Susanna Drury spent, in 1740, quite some period of months on site. Depicting the magnificence that she found, ensured that the Causeway became noted on The Grand Tour. And it was not until 1771 that a Frenchman, Demarest, announced the origin of the causeway to be the result of volcanic action.
A ship of the Spanish Armada was wrecked in Port-na-Spania (Spanish Bay) nearby.
Cork
Shipping and maritime trade have always been a vital part of the life of Cork. The city grew up where the River Lee starts to broaden out as it travels to the lower harbour and ultimately to the sea at Roches Point. As the city developed, it created areas where ships could dock safely.
The Cork coat of arms shows a ship between two castles.
Trade by sea was essential in the expansion of Cork and by the 18th century regular links had been established with many overseas ports. As well as the long established routes to Britain there were close trading connections with the continent. French ports such as Bordeaux built up profitable associations with Cork, trading wine, brandy and luxury goods for agricultural products. There was also a strong trade with the Baltic from where timber was imported. Some Cork merchants had relations in ports overseas, enabling them to keep a close eye on business matters. For example, members of the Coppinger, Galway and Lawton families were based in Bordeaux on the west coast of France.
The geographical location of Cork enabled it to profit from routes between Britain and North America. The provisions trade was particularly important to the city in the 18th and early 19th centuries, supplying products to ships en route to the West Indies and North America. The outbreak of the American War of Independence in 1775 and the subsequent entry of France into that war on the side of the Americans, meant that shipping on the routes across the Atlantic was vulnerable to enemy attack. One solution was to group large numbers of vessels together in a convoy and escort them to their destination with warships. The large sheltered harbour at Cork was ideal for gathering ships for this purpose during an age when sailing ships often had to wait days or even weeks for a fair wind. The value of the harbour was not forgotten when war broke out in the 1790s against France and again Cork became a busy gathering place for shipping.
A new Navigation Wall was constructed from the mid-18th century to improve the access for shipping as it approached the city. Similarly, over time, the quaysides in the city itself were improved so that ships could more easily discharge directly onto the city docks. The result was greatly expanded shipping operations close to the city centre and near the various industries and trades there from the 19th century.
Dublin Port
(Port Átha Cliath)
Dublin is the biggest sea port of Ireland, both the country and the island. The medieval port of Dublin was located on the south bank of the river Liffey near Christ Church Cathedral some kilometers upstream from its current location. In 1715, the South Bull Wall was constructed to shelter the entrance to the port. Poolbeg lighthouse at the end of the South Bull Wall was constructed in 1767.
In 1800, a survey of Dublin Bay conducted by Captain William Bligh recommended the construction of the North Bull Wall. After the completion of the wall in 1842, North Bull Island slowly formed as sand built up behind it.
After James Gandon's Custom House was built further downstream in 1791, the port moved downstream to the north bank of the river estuary, where the International Financial Services Centre is currently located. The noise and dirt associated with the port traffic contributed to the decline of the Mountjoy Square area, with many wealthy families moving to the Southside.
Iron, February 28, 1890
London, United Kingdom
Irish Orientalism
, Joseph Lennon, Syracuse University Press
