South Pacific

° Bequa Island ° Lautoka ° Matangi Island ° Suva

Fiji

Early European contact with Fiji comprised sealers, whalers, missionaries and traders who all impacted in different ways on the lifestyle of the local people.

The history of Fiji is one in which European contact was primarily directed towards profit and trade with the impact on the local people being of lesser concern, which mirrors the European invasion of countries around the world.

Sri Suva Subramaniya Swami Temple, Nadi Fiji

Exploration of Oceania was largely motivated by greed nd any nautical entrepreneur who promised rich pickings could be fairly sure of receiving financial backing for his journey. It was this way with the Portuguese and later the Spanish who, when they grew tired of showing the flag, were replaced by the Dutch. The Dutch, like those who went before them made the usual overtures of friendship but their ultimate aim was always business. If the symbol of the Spaniards had been a bloodied Christian cross, then that of the Dutchman would have been a well-adjusted set of grocer's scales.

Modes of Fishing:
Muleta, Tagus, Catamaran, Bahia. Fiji. 1883

The first Europeans to sight the Fiji Islands were Abel Janzsoon Tasman, who passed the northeast fringe of the group in 1643, and Captain James Cook, who passed the southeastern islands in 1774. Captain William Bligh passed through the group in his open longboat after the mutiny on HMS Bounty in 1789 and returned to explore it in 1792.

Commercial interest in the islands began with the discovery of sandalwood at the beginning of the 19th century, leading to a rush to Bua Bay at the southwestern end of Vanua Levu. A few beachcombers, useful as armourers and interpreters, were adopted by influential chiefs from this time.

Within little more than a decade, the accessible, commercial stands of sandalwood were depleted, but by the 1820s traders were again visiting the group to trade for edible varieties of the marine invertebrate called the sea cucumber, also known as b che-de-meror trepang.

Sea Slugs, 1904

The Chinese were fond of "sea slug soup," which was made from the sea cucumber. Whereas most of the sandalwood had been cut by foreigners, the b che-de-merharvest involved large numbers of Fijians in gathering, cleaning, and drying and in the provision of food and firewood.

Soon those oriental market forces were bringing trading ships to Fiji in ever growing numbers. The grey whales that once had been so plentiful in North American waters were no longer present in any significant number nd soon British and New England whalers were a frequent sight in Oceania. The advent of seagoing whalemen had a deadly impact on the Polynesians. They were a mixed bunch, including convicts taken aboard in Port Jackson, along with men of social standing. Whalers took longer than seal boats to fill their holds and sometimes they were away from home for up to four or five years at a time.

When a ship arrived in New Zealand's Bay of Islands, it was observed by the U.S. Consul that her decks were almost instantly lined with native women. These women had a simple enjoyment of sex and the sight of the welcome whalemen -- combined with the lure of goods such as highly prized nails made of iron -- proved to be irresistible. The tragedy was that of the innocence of the East bartering its favours with the outright lust of the West, and in the meeting that followed, the Polynesian women were seen as practising prostitution and their degradation inevitably followed. Not that the seamen were bothered by any such morals of consideration. Desertion was common in the South Seas where, because of the sunny climate, the means of subsistence was readily procured and sensual appetites readily gratified.

The Eliza of Providence, Rhode Island, was in Fiji for Sandalwood until she was wrecked. Among the wreckage washed up was the survivor named Charles Savage, who, ensured his survival by trading salvaged fire arms for his life. Passed from hand to hand by a succession of curious natives, Savage came to the attention of Naulivou, Ratu Mbau, and as the chief's military advisor, Savage set himself up in style. He taught the warriors how to shoot, surrounded himself with nubile women, and turned the Mbauans into formidable fighting force. For five years, they were able to wreck havoc until a raiding party led by Savage was ambushed; the white commander was killed and served up as "long pig."

Although guns soon became general on the Fijian islands, Mbau never lost the supremacy given to it by Savage and this supremacy was retained by Naulivou's nephew, Cakobau.

These opportunities for new wealth and power, symbolized by the acquisition of muskets, intensified political rivalries and hastened the rise of the confederation of Bau, led first by Naulivou, then by his nephew Cakobau. Bau is a tiny island off the southeast coast of Viti Levu, but by the 1850s it dominated western Fiji. Cakobau's main rival was the Tongan chief, Ma'afu, who led an army of Christian Tongans and their allies from eastern Fiji.

After a short-lived alliance with Ma'afu, Cakobau became a Christian in 1854, thus bringing most Fijians under the influence of Methodist missionaries. Cannibalism practiced in Fiji at that time quickly disappeared as missionaries gained influence. When Ratu Seru Cakobau accepted Christianity in 1854, the rest of the country soon followed and tribal warfare came to an end. Roman Catholic and Anglican missionaries arrived later but did not enjoy the same success.

Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as formidable warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific, but not great sailors.

Sacramento Daily Union , November 25, 1858, Sacramento, California, U.S.A.

OUTRAGE AT THE FEEJEE ISLANDS

The schooner Rudorus, Capt. Seaman, has brought to Sydney intelligence of the murder of two white men and a Rotuma native of Naya, Feejee Islands. Also, of the town of Lavuka, on Ovalau, having been burned, as was said, by some of the Inlanders. The following minutes of two meetings held upon these subjects, by the white residents at Ovalau, had been handed to the Sydney Morning Herald, and published in the issue of that journal of September 2d:

LAVUKA, OVALAU, July 22, 1858

Pursuant to public notice, the white residents of Avatau met, and being called to order, Capt. W. R. Watson was called to the chair, and J. M. Brower was chosen Secretary. On motion of J. M. Brower, the Chairman directed that the Secretary should address a note to John B. Williams, United States Consul for the Feejee islands requesting his attendance as a citizen in common with us, entirely Independent of his official capacity, and that he, in the name of the meeting, would invite the Rev. J. Breheret, French Catholic Missionary, to attend also. Mr. Williams and the Missionary having arrived, the Chairman proceeded to address the meeting, stating in brief terms the object and considerations for which the people had been culled together to be as follows:

On the 15th day of July, about ten o'clock, a m., the town of Lavuka had been set on fire and burned to the ground, destroying a large amount of property belonging to the citizens, rendering them almost penniless. About eight o'clock in the evening of the same day attempts were made to fire the towns of Ergarigari and Totonga. A native was seen in the attempt to fire the town of Ergarigari, but was so closely pursued that it was prevented. Two houses were burnt in Totonga and a native named Verri was seen to apply the firebrand by several persons, and he was also seen carrying some property he had stolen from the houses into the native town. He was taken into custody by the Chief of Totonga, but in the night effected his escape.

On the following night an attempt was made to fire the town of Vanquadad by a native, who was seen and pursued, but he made his escape. The attempt had been made to burn and destroy the whole of the settlement of the white residents, in so regular and systematic a style selecting and taking care that the windward houses should be fired first there was but little doubt but that it was the work of incendiaries, and that a deliberate attempt had been made to burn and destroy the whole place. It was for the purpose of gathering all the information possible tending to the origin and cause of these attempts at our destruction, and, having come to some conclusion as to who were the guilty ones, to determine in what manner the punishment deserved should be visited upon them, that were were now assembled. In addition to this matter, there was another that demanded our attention. Two of our citizens had been brutally murdered and eaten by the natives on the island of Naya. Their boat was broken into pieces, and their property taken. Parties had been sent to Naya since the news of the murder had reached us by J. Binner to inquire into the circumstances ending the murder, and there is every reason to believe that the attack was an unprovoked one, and that while the boat was lying at anchor, in broad daylight, the natives swam off, with apparently friendly intentions, and taking the whites unawares, had brutally clubbed them, together with a Rotuma native, who was employed in the boat, and all three were taken on shore, cooked, and eaten in the cannibal style. The boat was then hulled on shore and broken up, and the property taken and distributed. When interrogated as to why they had acted thus, the natives replied with insinuating and menacing answers. In this latter case there required no investigation at this time; the deed, dark as it is, has been consummated, and it is only for us to determine what and when shall be their punishment.

A subsequent meeting was held, when the following proceedings were had:

It was thought advisable to take some steps to arrest the man who was seen to fire the house in the Totonga, as he was well known; and the Chair appointed David Whippy and William Valentine, being the eldest residents, to use their influence with Tul Lavuka and the Chief of Totonga to induce them to bring him to Lavnka or Totonga, that the members of the meeting might take him into custody. The question of time arose again. When should the white residents go to Naya? A vote was taken, and the 15th of August determined upon. It was afterwards suggested that it should be changed to an earlier date, and that time should be allowed the white residents of Rewa to arrive or to know of our intentions. The meeting voted that all go in their own boats and pay their own expenses. J. Binner offered his boat to go, and would try to get permission of the Mission for the glide to go; feared he would not succeed. J. M. Brower offered his schooner to go, if a time was selected at an early date, otherwise it might be impossible for her to be here on the 15th of August. All others present having boats, Beddows, Bath, Carr, Trask, Whippy and Miller proposed they should go; also McComber, Valentine and the Catholic Mission boat; and, on motion, the meeting adjourned, to meet at the same place and hour on Monday, Tuesday or Wednesday following, or as soon as news arrived from Rewa, and notice was generally given.

(Signed) W. K. WATSON, Chairman.
(Signed) J. M. BROWER, Secretary.

Lloyds Weekly Newspaper, December 19, 1858, London, United Kingdom

SCRAP-BOOK COLUMN.

FIJIAN FALSEHOOD AND DECEIT .--The Fijian is a great adept in acting as well as telling an untruth. The expectation of an order to set about some difficult job often makes a man wear his arm in a sling; another, while seeming to work with fearful exertion is all the time careful not to strain a single muscle; and the appearance of seeking their neighbour's benefit while intent only on their own is shown continually. It has already been seen that the Fijian can be cruelly deceitful. Here is an instance in which foreigners were concerned. Four seaman left Fortuna for Fiji in a canoe less than thirty feet in length. They sighted land after being one night at sea, and, in a few hours, were in communication with the natives of Thrombin. One of the sailors, having formerly lived in the group, knew a little of the language, and went ashore to ask where they were. A native, who had adjusted his mari in the style of a lolu dress, said "This is Somesomo; we are Christians, and I am teacher in this place. This was pleasant news to the inquirer but looking round, he saw the wreck of a boat on the beach, and one one of the natives a pea-jacket which had belonged to a white man who had miserably perished by the hands of these savages. Though his suspicions were thus aroused, the sailor preserved his self-command, and very composedly replied, "This is good; this is the land I seek; I will return and bring my companions on shore." Directly he reached the canoe he announced their danger to his comrades, and the sail was immediately hoisted. A native who had laid hold on the end of the canoe was frightened off, by having a rusty musket presented at him. Those on shore, seeing their prey likely to escape, gave a loud shout, when many more rushed out from their ambush, and a shower of bullets followed the canoe. Several passed through the sail, but as the savages fired high, the little party escaped uninjured, and one of then afterwards related circumstances to me. Fiji and the Fijians

By the 1860s Fiji was attracting European settlers intent on establishing plantations to capitalize on a boom in cotton prices caused by the American Civil War. The consequent disputes over land and political power within and between European and Fijian communities, and problems with labour introduced from other Pacific islands, contributed to violent confrontations and exacerbated the implicit instability of Fijian society and ensured that no Fijian chief could impose his rule on the whole group. European attempts at government were doomed by the greed and factionalism of their members and by the interference of European governments and consuls. Imperial intervention thus became inevitable.

London Colonies,, March 20, 1875, London, Middlesex, United Kingdom

THE CHALLENGER EXPEDITION.

Various Dancing Costumes Worn at Nakello, Fiji
Illustration from the Voyage of the H.M.S. Challenger
1872-1876
M. Hanhart

A LECTURE on the above was delivered on the 12th inst. by Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. at the Royal United Service Institution, Admiral Sir A. Milne in the chair. Dr. Carpenter said that when they did him the honour to invite him to lecture in that institution two years ago on the subject of the Challenger, he was only able to say what was intended to be done. They had then only a small installment of information as to what had been done, and his object then was to explain to them the scientific purposes of that very interesting expedition. The two leading purposes of the expedition were, first, the exploration of the deep-sea as regarded its physical condition, depth, temperature, and solidity of water, together with any other conditions which observation might bring to their knowledge; secondly, to ascertain the nature of the ocean's bottom, which was proved to be of peculiar interest and importance, and to search for the various forms of life, which they believed would be found possible, even at the greatest depths The animal collection made by the Challenger had been very much larger than was at all anticipated, and he had learned from the hydrographer at the Admiralty that when the ship went into Hong Kong, after her voyage from Sydney, every jar and bottle on board was filled. Those were now on their way home, and they would be kept in store till Professor Wyvillo Thompson's return, when they would be handed over to various scientific men for examination. They knew a good deal in general terms of the success of the expedition. A great number of singular forms had been discovered, and they know that a great number, of specimens had been obtained of subjects which, from their very anomalous character, had excited great interest among naturalists. As regarded the distribution of the temperature, that distribution was obviously the clue to the great movements of the ocean water which were too slow to bo detected by ordinary mechanical means. He had been led by researches made some time ago to a general view that oceanic circulation depended very much upon difference of temperature alone, which appeared to him to be extremely important, as accounting for certain facts which the Gulf Stream did not account for, and he had since learned that a doctrine nearly similar to his own was promulgated in 1845 by the eminent German Professor Lenz. The lecturer then proceeded to describe elaborately the theory ho had formed as to the flow of Polar water in the Atlantic to the Equator and its rise towards the surface, by which means a constant stream of cold water was moving through the Atlantic up to a certain level. The major portion of the water, he was of opinion, came from the Antarctic Ocean, as the means of egress for the water was much greater than in the Arctic regions. Therefore, in the Atlantic the temperature of the water never rose above 80 degrees except in the presence of the land, where it occasionally rose to 86 or 89, whereas in the Red Sea during the month of August the water frequently rose to 98, and from that to 101. They there saw the extraordinary moderating influence upon what would be otherwise an intolerable heat at the Equator. Dr. Carpenter concluded his lecture with an interesting description, illustrated with diagrams, of the Globigorinae, or forms of animal life, that were found at great depths, and with a speculative analysis of the probable nature of the deposits at the bottom of the Atlantic. Sir Alexander Milne proposed a vote of thanks to the lecturer.

On October 10, 1874, after negotiations had led to an offer of unconditional cession, Fiji became a British crown colony. The policies of the first governor, Sir Arthur Gordon, were decisive in shaping the history of Fiji. Gordon saw himself as the protector of the Fijian people and thus initiated policies that limited their involvement in commercial and political developments. Sales of Fijian land were banned; the Fijians were taxed in agricultural produce, not cash; and they were governed through a system of indirect rule based on the traditional political structure.

Polynesian Groups: South Polar Regions Map C1897. Samoa, Fiji, Sandwich Islands

In order to maintain these policies yet encourage the economic development of the new colony, Gordon promoted the introduction of indentured Indian labourers and investment by the Colonial Sugar Refining Company to establish sugar plantations and processing mills. Indian migrants were encouraged to become permanent settlers at the conclusion of their contracts, even though little land was available for sale and the migrants' political rights were circumscribed. After the termination of the indenture system in 1920, Indian agitation over political and economic grievances caused strikes and continual discontent and challenged the commercial and political domination of the small European community in the islands.

June 23, 1888, American Settler , London, United Kingdom

. . . As far as commercial considerations go, the Fiji Islands have proved much more valuable than New Caledonia and the Loyalists together, though their total foreign trade has fallen recently from 800,000 to 500,000. The value of the group as a naval station is well known, and their importance cannot but be enhanced by the opening of the Panama Canal. Unfortunately the natives, now mostly Christians, seem to be fast dying out, and of the 124,000 inhabitants some 10,000 are immigrant coolie and Polynesian labourers. More than half-way from Fiji to New Zealand we come upon the Kermadeo Islands, recently annexed to keep them out of hands of the foreigner; they are really outposts of New Zealand. They cover about 20 square miles of land, and were, when visited last year, inhabited by a Mr. Bell and his family, from Samoa, who grow European vegetables as well as other crops. The islands seem to have no harbour of any value. Another New Zealand outpost is Chatham Island almost directly south of the Kermadeos and useful as a depot for provisions, These and the other small islands to the south-east and south of New Zealand are all, of course attached to that colony. The only other Islands in the Pacific to which Boston can lay claim are these which it was announced the other day we had just annexed Caroline, Starbuck, Maiden, Fanning, and Penryn Islands, which have been in the Colonial Office List for years: Fanning was annexed by England in 1861, and is a really useful possession. It is only 30 miles in circumference; fruitful, has good water supplies; while from the ethnological point of view it is of great interest. Fanning Island lies about 5 deg. north of the equator, almost directly south from the Hawaiian Islands.

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1899. World's Fleet. Boston Daily Globe

Lloyds Register of Shipping gives the entire fleet of the world as 28,180 steamers and sailing vessels, with a total tonnage of 27,673,628, of which 39 perent are British.

Great Britain	10,990 vessels, total tonnage of 10,792,714
United States	3,010 vessels, total tonnage of 2,405,887
Norway	2,528 vessels, tonnage of 1,604,230
Germany	1,676 vessels, with a tonnage of 2,453,334, in which are included her particularly large ships.
Sweden	1,408 vessels with a tonnage of 643, 527
Italy	1,150 vessels
France	1,182 vessels

For Historical Comparison
Top 10 Maritime Nations Ranked by Value (2017)

	Country	# of Vessels	Gross Tonnage (m)	Total Value (USDbn)
1	Greece	4,453	206.47	$88.0
2	Japan	4,317	150.26	$79.8
3	China	4,938	159.71	$71.7
4	USA	2,399	55.92	$46.5
5	Singapore	2,662	64.03	$41.7
6	Norway	1,668	39.68	$41.1
7	Germany	2,923	81.17	$30.3
8	UK	883	28.78	$24.3
9	Denmark	1,040	36.17	$23.4
10	South Korea	1,484	49.88	$20.1
Total		26,767	87.21	$466.9